Guide to Rust procedural macros

• What are procedural macros
  • Declarative macros have limitations
  • Summary of proc vs decl macros
  • Source code examples
• How to add a proc macro lib crate to your existing project
  • Add an internal or core crate
• What does a syn AST look like?
• How to write a proc macro of any kind
  • Strategy
  • Examples
  • Writing your own Parse trait impl in different ways
• Eg 1 - Function-like macro that dumps the AST
• Eg 2 - Function-like macro that parses custom syntax
  • Desired syntax and behavior
  • Implementing the syntax parser
  • Implementing the code generator
• Eg 3 - Derive macro that adds a method to a struct
  • Test for expected output
  • Watch macro expansion
  • Naive implementation
  • Better implementation that handles generics
  • Using quote!
• Eg 4 - Derive macro that generates a builder
  • Stub out the implementation
  • Testing the macro
  • Implementation details
• Eg 5 - Attribute macro that adds logging to a function
  • Create entry in lib.rs
  • How to parse item?
  • How to parse args containing attributes for variant 1?
  • How to parse args containing set of identifiers for variant 2?
• Learning resources

What are procedural macros #

Procedural macros are a way for you to extend the Rust compiler and provide plugins that you can use to extend the language. They are really powerful and require some more work to setup in an existing project (you have to create a new library create just for them and they all have to be declared in the lib.rs file). Here are the key benefits of procedural macros:

• Minimize the amount of manual work you have to do in order to generate boilerplate code 🎉. This is similar to annotation processing in Java and Kotlin.
• You can create your own domain specific language like React JSX in Rust 🎉. Create your own DSL (domain specific language) like in Kotlin and babel and JavaScript.

Declarative macros have limitations #

For example they can’t work with generics. They are easier to write than procedural macros. If you have simple use cases they work great, since they are so easy to write. Here are some resources to help you w/ learning declarative macros.

1. Declarative macros in r3bl-open-core repo
2. Declarative macros included in this article’s repo (but not covered in this article)
3. Little book of Rust macros
4. Great YT video on declarative macros

Summary of proc vs decl macros #

Macro type	Capabilities & limitations
Declarative	Can’t handle generics, patterns capture items as wholes and can’t be broken down in the macro body
Procedural - function like	Operates on the code passed inside parenthesis of invocation to produce new token stream.
Procedural - derive	Can’t touch token stream of annotated struct or enum, only add new token stream below; can declare helper attributes
Procedural - attribute	Like function-like, replaces token stream of annotated item (not just struct or enum)

Source code examples #

1. You can find “real world” examples of both declarative and procedural macros in the r3bl-open-core repo.
   • proc macros
   • decl macros
2. You can find all the pedagogical examples of macros shown in this article in this repo.

🌟 Please star the r3bl-open-core repo. You can get lots of useful Rust command line apps from the r3bl-cmdr crate in this repo:

• 🐱giti: run interactive git commands with confidence in your terminal
• 🦜edi: edit Markdown with style in your terminal

📦 You can install them using cargo install r3bl-cmdr

giti in action edi in action

If you would like to get involved in an open source project and like Rust crates, we welcome your contributions to the r3bl-open-core repo.

For more information on general Rust type system design (functional approach rather than object oriented), please take a look at this paper by Will Crichton demonstrating Typed Design Patterns with Rust.

How to add a proc macro lib crate to your existing project #

Rust has two kinds of macros: declarative and procedural. Declarative macros are made using macro_rules! inline in your code w/out creating a new lib crate. This article is about procedural macros which are the imperative style of creating Rust macros.

🤔 One complication with using procedural macros is that they are not allowed to be used in the same crate where your code lives. This requires us to create a new library create inside our existing Rust project.

The first step in using procedural macros is to create a new library crate.

Here are the steps that we must take starting in our existing Rust project (which maybe a lib or bin or both project).

1. Create a new crate inside our existing Rust project.

   • Run the following command to create a new my_proc_macros_lib crate inside your existing project.

     $ cargo new --lib my_proc_macros_lib
     

   • Inside the newly created my_proc_macros_lib folder you will find:
     • A Cargo.toml file. Make sure to add these dependencies to this file:
       • quote = "*"
       • syn = { version = "*", features = ["extra-traits"] }
       • proc-macro2 = "*"
     • A src folder w/ a lib.rs file inside of it. All proc macro functions (annotated w/ #[proc_macro]) must be defined in this file and no other. You can however import code from other modules just like normal. You can think of this file as a place where you “export” the definitions of your macros to other crates. Kind of like a registry or manifest of procedural macros in this lib crate that the Rust compiler can discover and use easily.

2. You now have to This declares this newly created crate as a dependency of your main project.

   • Add the following to your main project’s Cargo.toml file:

     [dependencies]
     my_proc_macros_lib = { path = "my_proc_macros_lib" }
     

3. You can now use the code in this my_proc_macros_lib crate by importing them in the code of your main like so: use my_proc_macros_lib::*.

Here’s an example of a Cargo.toml for the proc macro lib crate:

[package]
name = "my_proc_macros_lib"
version = "0.1.0"
edition = "2021"

[lib]
name = "my_proc_macros_lib"
path = "src/lib.rs"
proc-macro = true

[dependencies]
# https://github.com/dtolnay/proc-macro-workshop#debugging-tips
syn = { version = "*", features = ["extra-traits"] }
quote = "*"
proc-macro2 = "*"
r3bl_rs_utils = "*"

🗜️ It is also a good idea to install cargo expand to see what your code your macros actually expand into. You will need two things:

1. cargo install cargo-expand which installs cargo expand.
2. rustup toolchain install nightly which installs the Rust nightly toolchain that’s needed by cargo expand.

Then you can run a command like the following cargo expand --test test_derive_macro_describe to expand the test test_derive_macro_describe.

👀 To watch for changes in your code and run the above command, you can install cargo install cargo-watch and then run: cargo watch -x 'expand --test test_derive_macro_describe'.

1. A script is provided called cargo-watch-macro-expand-one-test.fish which does this for the test that you give that script as an argument.
2. Another script is provided called cargo-watch-one-test.fish which watches for changes in your and then runs the test you give that script as an argument.

Add an internal or core crate #

There are situations where you will need to share code between your public crate and your procedural macro crate. In this case you can add an internal or core crate to your project. The shared files will all go inside of this core or internal crate.

For more information on this, please check out this stackoverflow thread.

The basic steps look like this:

1. Add a new crate my_core_lib and create the following dependencies:
   • public crate (eg: r3bl_rs_utils) deps: [my_core_lib, my_proc_macros_lib]
   • proc macro crate (eg: my_proc_macros_lib) deps: [my_core_lib]
2. The files that need to be shared everywhere (public & proc macro crates) need to go in the my_core_lib crate.

📦 Here’s a real example of this from the r3bl_rs_utils crate which applies this change in this commit.

🌟 Please star the r3bl-open-core repo on github if you like it 🙏.

If you publish the public crate to crates.io, then you will need to publish each of the dependent crates as well. This won’t happen automatically when publishing the public crate, you have to go in and run cargo publish on each and every dependent crate and they will be their own installable crate on crates.io.

What does a syn AST look like? #

Before writing macros, let’s talk about how we need to think about things:

1. Instead of working w/ TokenStreams, we will work w/ an AST (abstract syntax tree) generated by syn::* functions and macros. This will make our life much easier.

2. We will then walk parts of this tree and generate code using quote! which will generate a new TokenStream that will then be returned by our procedural macro.

Let’s take a look at what an AST actually looks like. Here’s an example of what you get from parsing the string "fn foo() -> u32 { 42 }" using syn::parse_str():

    attrs: [],
    vis: Inherited,
    sig: Signature {
        constness: None,
        asyncness: None,
        unsafety: None,
        abi: None,
        fn_token: Fn,
        ident: Ident {
            ident: "foo",
            span: #5 bytes(91..125),
        },
        generics: Generics {
            lt_token: None,
            params: [],
            gt_token: None,
            where_clause: None,
        },
        paren_token: Paren,
        inputs: [],
        variadic: None,
        output: Type(
            RArrow,
            Path(
                TypePath {
                    qself: None,
                    path: Path {
                        leading_colon: None,
                        segments: [
                            PathSegment {
                                ident: Ident {
                                    ident: "u32",
                                    span: #5 bytes(91..125),
                                },
                                arguments: None,
                            },
                        ],
                    },
                },
            ),
        ),
    },
    block: Block {
        brace_token: Brace,
        stmts: [
            Expr(
                Lit(
                    ExprLit {
                        attrs: [],
                        lit: Int(
                            LitInt {
                                token: 42,
                            },
                        ),
                    },
                ),
            ),
        ],
    },
}

💡 Here’s an example from the syn repo that shows you how to read in a Rust file and dump it into a syn AST: dump-syntax.

How to write a proc macro of any kind #

There are 3 kinds of proc macros. Once you’ve created a new library crate for them inside your project, you write macros like the ones shown below.

📜 This article will provide examples of each of these types of macros. You can find them all in this repo.

💡 You can also take a look at this tutorial by JetBrains which goes into visual descriptions of the AST, token tree, etc.

extern crate proc_macro;
use proc_macro::TokenStream;

#[proc_macro]
pub fn my_fn_like_proc_macro(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
  // 1. Use syn to parse the input tokens into a syntax tree.
  // 2. Use quote to generate new tokens based on what we parsed.
  // 3. Return the generated tokens.
  input
}

#[proc_macro_derive(MyDerive)]
pub fn my_derive_proc_macro(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
  // 1. Use syn to parse the input tokens into a syntax tree.
  // 2. Generate new tokens based on the syntax tree. This is additive to the `enum` or
  //    `struct` that is annotated (it doesn't replace them).
  // 3. Return the generated tokens.
  input
}

#[proc_macro_attribute]
pub fn log_entry_and_exit(args: TokenStream, input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
  // 1. Use syn to parse the args & input tokens into a syntax tree.
  // 2. Generate new tokens based on the syntax tree. This will replace whatever `item` is
  //    annotated w/ this attribute proc macro.
  // 3. Return the generated tokens.
  input
}

Strategy #

The rough idea is that we will have to parse “things” into this proc_macro2::TokenStream in order to manipulate them. They can be parsed into this AST from:

1. Strings,
2. Input to a derive macro,
3. Input to an attribute macro,
4. Input to a function like macro,
5. And even other ASTs generated by quote!() using parse_quote!().

In order to do this parsing you have to use the syn::parse* functions.

• When using any of them (macro form or otherwise) you have to provide the type that you want the TokenStream to be parsed into.
• You have to supply the type that you want the TokenStream to be parsed as. So if you have a function then you want to tell syn to parse it as ItemFn. Here’s an example: let fun:ItemFn = parse_macro_input!(input as ItemFn). This will parse the input variable into an ItemFn AST and then you can work w/ the fields provided by ItemFn after that.

Examples #

So here are some examples of what this looks like.

1. This is how you parse a TokenStream into a DeriveInput using the parse_macro_input!() function (eg: in a derive macro):

   pub fn derive_proc_macro_impl(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
     let DeriveInput {
       ident: struct_name_ident,
       data,
       generics,
       ..
     } = parse_macro_input!(input as DeriveInput); // Same as: syn::parse(input).unwrap();
     ...
   }
   

2. This is how you parse a string into a proc_macro2::TokenStream using the parse_str() function. Note that we have to provide the type that we want the String to be parsed into via the turbofish syntax, in this case syn::Type.

   let traits: Vec<&str> = vec!["std::default::Default", "std::fmt::Debug"];
   syn::parse_str::<syn::Type>(&traits.join(" + ")).unwrap();
   

3. It is possible to provide your own implementation of the Parse trait and hand it to syn to extract the AST you want out of the input TokenStream. The syn docs have an example of this here. There’s also a Parser trait that you can implement which allows you greater control over the parsing process.

Writing your own Parse trait impl in different ways #

This might not be intuitive, but you can parse the same TokenStream using various different parsers. You can parse a TokenStream as a Type or Ident or whatever else depending on what you need.

Try different traits until you get the one that gets you the AST you want. You can also write your own parser.

Let’s illustrate this with an example. Let’s say you want to provide a function like macro w/ the following syntax: fn_macro_custom_syntax! { ThingManager<T> for Vec<T> }. You can write your own Parse trait implementation and extract the AST from the TokenStream and you can write this parser in many many different ways.

Here’s one example.

struct ManagerOfThingInfo {
  manager_ident: Ident,
  manager_generics_ident: Ident,
  thing_type: Type,
}

/// [Parse docs](https://docs.rs/syn/latest/syn/parse/index.html)
impl Parse for ManagerOfThingInfo {
  fn parse(input: ParseStream) -> Result<Self> {
    let manager_ident: Ident = input.parse()?;
    if input.peek(Token![<]) {
      input.parse::<Token![<]>()?;
    }
    let manager_generics_ident: Ident = input.parse()?;
    if input.peek(Token![>]) {
      input.parse::<Token![>]>()?;
    }
    input.parse::<Token![for]>()?;
    let thing_type: Type = input.parse()?;
    Ok(ManagerOfThingInfo {
      manager_ident,
      manager_generics_ident,
      thing_type,
    })
  }
}

And here’s another way of doing it.

struct ManagerOfThingInfo {
  manager_name_ident: Ident,
  manager_ty: Type,
  thing_ty: Type,
}

/// [Parse docs](https://docs.rs/syn/latest/syn/parse/index.html)
impl Parse for ManagerOfThingInfo {
  fn parse(input: ParseStream) -> Result<Self> {
    let manager_ty: Type = input.parse()?;
    input.parse::<Token![for]>()?;
    let thing_ty: Type = input.parse()?;

    let manager_name_ident = match manager_ty {
      Type::Path(ref type_path) => {
        let path = &type_path.path;
        let ident = &path
          .segments
          .first()
          .unwrap()
          .ident;
        ident.clone()
      }
      _ => panic!("Expected Type::Path::TypePath.segments to have an Ident"),
    };

    Ok(ManagerOfThingInfo {
      manager_name_ident,
      manager_ty,
      thing_ty,
    })
  }
}

📜 You can find all the syn examples in this repo.

📜 You can find the solution to the proc macro workshop here.

📜 This tutorial from the rust-analyzer team is also quite helpful.

Eg 1 - Function-like macro that dumps the AST #

Let’s start our procedural macro journey w/ something very simple. It’s a macro that doesn’t really emit any token stream. It just prints out the AST of the input as debug. So we won’t be using quote!() but we will be using syn.

We will start by turning this one line function that’s represented by this string literal.

let output_token_stream_str = "fn foo() -> u32 { 42 }";

The first thing we must do is define the macro in the lib.rs file.

extern crate proc_macro;
use proc_macro::TokenStream;

mod ast_viz_debug;

#[proc_macro]
pub fn fn_macro_ast_viz_debug(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
  ast_viz_debug::fn_proc_macro_impl(input)
}

Let’s write the ast_viz_debug.rs file next.

/// https://docs.rs/syn/latest/syn/macro.parse_macro_input.html
pub fn fn_proc_macro_impl(_input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
  let output_token_stream_str = "fn foo() -> u32 { 42 }";
  let output = output_token_stream_str.parse().unwrap();

  let ast_item_fn: ItemFn = parse_str::<ItemFn>(output_token_stream_str).unwrap();
  viz_ast(ast_item_fn);

  output
}

Here’s the function viz_ast that we’ll use to print out the AST.

fn viz_ast(ast: ItemFn) {
  // Simply dump the AST to the console.
  let ast_clone = ast.clone();
  eprintln!("{} => {}", style_primary("Debug::ast"), ast_clone);

  // Parse AST to dump some items to the console.
  let ItemFn {
    attrs,
    vis,
    sig,
    block,
  } = ast;

  eprintln!(
    "{} ast_item_fn < attrs.len:{}, vis:{}, sig:'{}' stmt: '{}' >",
    style_primary("=>"),
    style_prompt(&attrs.len().to_string()),
    style_prompt(match vis {
      syn::Visibility::Public(_) => "public",
      syn::Visibility::Crate(_) => "crate",
      syn::Visibility::Restricted(_) => "restricted",
      syn::Visibility::Inherited => "inherited",
    }),
    style_prompt(&sig.ident.to_string()),
    style_prompt(&match block.stmts.first() {
      Some(stmt) => {
        let expr_str = stmt.to_token_stream().to_string().clone();
        expr_str
      }
      None => "empty".to_string(),
    }),
  );
}

⚡ To learn more about syn APIs, check out the following links:

• https://docs.rs/syn/latest/syn/fn.parse_str.html
• https://docs.rs/syn/latest/syn/struct.ItemFn.html
• https://docs.rs/syn/latest/syn/struct.Attribute.html
• https://docs.rs/syn/latest/syn/enum.Visibility.html
• https://docs.rs/syn/latest/syn/struct.Signature.html
• https://docs.rs/syn/latest/syn/struct.Block.html
• https://docs.rs/syn/latest/syn/enum.Stmt.html
• https://github.com/dtolnay/proc-macro-workshop#debugging-tips

To test this function we can write the following test.

use my_proc_macros_lib::fn_macro_ast_viz_debug;

#[test]
fn test_proc_macro() {
  fn_macro_ast_viz_debug!();
  assert_eq!(foo(), 42);
}

• We can watch this test run using this script: ./cargo-watch-one-test.fish test_fn_macro_ast_viz_debug
• We can watch the macros generated by this test expanded using this script: ./cargo-watch-macro-expand-one-test.fish test_fn_macro_ast_viz_debug

📜 You can find another example of a function like procedural macro from the syn docs called lazy-static. It shows how to parse a custom syntax.

Eg 2 - Function-like macro that parses custom syntax #

There are times when you need to create your own syntax or domain specific language. Examples of this are JSX for React. Or DAO generators for a database. In these cases, it’s not just about outputting a token stream, but a large chunk of the work is coming up w/ a syntax that then has to be parsed 🎉!

The idea is that your users will declaratively define the things that you want to happen, and the procedural macro will do the rest.

• Declarative or the folks who are using the macros.
• For the implementors, it ends up generating imperative code.

📦 To see a real world example of a custom syntax parser, please check out manager_of_things.rs.

• This is part of the r3bl_rs_utils crate.
• You can also look at the tests to see how this macro is used.
• You can create your own custom keywords using syn via the syn::custom_keyword!() macro.
• The code that’s generated also uses async traits which are interesting.

📜 Take a look at the syn example called lazy-static to get some more ideas on custom syntax parsing and creating custom error messages for the compiler.

Desired syntax and behavior #

Let’s say that we want to parse a custom syntax like the following, which basically is a declaration of how a manager for the struct HashMap<K, V> should be created.

fn_macro_custom_syntax! {
  ThingManager<K, V>
  where K: Send + Sync + Default + 'static, V: Send + Sync + Default + 'static
  for std::collections::HashMap<K, V>
}

1. ThingManager is just the name of the struct that should be generated by the macro.
2. <K, V> these are optional generic types.
3. The where clause is optional. If this is missing and optional generic types are provided above, then a default where clause will be generated.
4. Finally, the for clause allows you to specify the type that the generated manager will be managing.

So we want the declaration shown above to emit the following code.

/// Generated manager ThingManager.
struct ThingManager<K, V>
where
    K: Send + Sync + Default + 'static,
    V: Send + Sync + Default + 'static,
{
    wrapped_thing: std::collections::HashMap<K, V>,
}

Let’s say that we want some more flexibility in our syntax and will allow the omission of the where clause and we will generate it ourselves, based on the generic type arguments that are passed to ThingManager, in other words <K, V>. So the syntax will now look like this.

fn_macro_custom_syntax! {
  ThingManager<K, V>

for std::collections::HashMap<K, V>
}

And we want to generate the following code. Notice that the where clause is generated auto-magically 🪄.

/// Generated manager ThingManager.
struct ThingManager<K, V>
where
    K: Send + Sync + 'static,
    V: Send + Sync + 'static,
{
    wrapped_thing: std::collections::HashMap<K, V>,
}

Implementing the syntax parser #

So how would we implement this macro? The first thing is to create a custom parser for the syntax. There are 2 main things we have to do:

1. Create a struct that holds all the pertinent information from parsing our syntax, which will need to generate the actual code.
2. Create a Parse trait implementation for this struct that will take care of parsing all the tokens that are provided in the ParseStream.

Here’s the code that does these things. One thing to note is that the where clause is optional. If one isn’t provided, then one will be generated automatically for each of the generic types that are provided to ThingManager. This is assuming generic type arguments are passed in with ThingManager. If they aren’t then no where clause will be generated.

/// Example of syntax to parse:
/// ```no_run
/// fn_macro_custom_syntax! {
///   ╭─L1──────────────────────────────────────────
///   │     manager_ty
///   │     ▾▾▾▾▾▾▾▾▾▾▾▾▾▾▾▾▾▾
///   named ThingManager<K, V>
///   │     ▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴ ▴▴▴▴
///   │     │            manager_ty_generic_args
///   │     manager_name_ident
///   ╰─────────────────────────────────────────────
///   ╭─L2?─────────────────────────────────────────
///   where K: Send + Sync + 'static, V: Send + Sync + 'static
///   │     ▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴
///   │     where_clause
///   ╰─────────────────────────────────────────────
///   ╭─L3──────────────────────────────────────────
///   of_type std::collections::HashMap<K, V>
///   │       ▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴▴
///   │       thing_ty
///   ╰─────────────────────────────────────────────
/// }
#[derive(Debug)]
struct ManagerOfThingInfo {
  manager_name_ident: Ident,
  manager_ty: Type,
  manager_ty_generic_args: Option<Punctuated<GenericArgument, Comma>>,
  where_clause: Option<WhereClause>,
  thing_ty: Type,
}

/// [Parse docs](https://docs.rs/syn/latest/syn/parse/index.html)
impl Parse for ManagerOfThingInfo {
  fn parse(input: ParseStream) -> Result<Self> {
    // 👀 Manager Type, eg: `ThingManager<K,V>`.
    let manager_ty: Type = input.parse()?;
    let manager_ty_generic_args = match manager_ty.has_angle_bracketed_generic_args() {
      true => Some(
        manager_ty
          .get_angle_bracketed_generic_args_result()
          .unwrap(),
      ),
      false => None,
    };

    // 👀 Optional where clause,
    // eg: `where K: Send+Sync+'static, V: Send+Sync+'static`.
    let mut where_clause: Option<WhereClause> = None;
    if input.peek(Token![where]) {
      where_clause = Some(input.parse::<WhereClause>()?);
    } else {
      if manager_ty.has_angle_bracketed_generic_args() {
        let ident_vec = manager_ty
          .get_angle_bracketed_generic_args_idents_result()
          .unwrap();
        let my_ts = quote! {
          where #(#ident_vec: Send + Sync + 'static),*
        }
        .into();
        let my_where_clause: WhereClause = syn::parse(my_ts).unwrap();
        where_clause = Some(my_where_clause)
      }
    }

    // 👀 for keyword.
    input.parse::<Token![for]>()?;

    // 👀 Thing Type, eg: `std::collections::HashMap<K, V>`.
    let thing_ty: Type = input.parse()?;

    let manager_name_ident = if manager_ty.has_ident() {
      manager_ty.get_ident().unwrap()
    } else {
      panic!("Expected Type::Path::TypePath.segments to have an Ident")
    };

    Ok(ManagerOfThingInfo {
      manager_ty_generic_args,
      manager_name_ident,
      manager_ty,
      thing_ty,
      where_clause,
    })
  }
}

Implementing the code generator #

In this example almost all the work goes into parsing the custom syntax. The code generator we are going to implement is trivial. Here’s what it looks like.

pub fn fn_proc_macro_impl(input: TokenStream) ->:TokenStream {
  let manager_of_thing_info =
    parse_macro_input!(input as ManagerOfThingInfo);

  let ManagerOfThingInfo {
    manager_name_ident,
    manager_ty,
    thing_ty,
    manager_ty_generic_args,
    where_clause,
  } = manager_of_thing_info;

  let doc_struct_str = format!(
    " Generated manager {}.",
    &manager_name_ident,
  );

  quote! {
    #[doc = #doc_struct_str]
    struct #manager_ty #where_clause {
      wrapped_thing: #thing_ty
    }
  }
  .into()
}

📜 You can find the source code for this example here in its repo.

• We can watch macro expansion by running this script: ./cargo-watch-macro-expand-one-test.fish test_fn_macro_custom_syntax
• We can watch test output by running this script: ./cargo-watch-one-test.fish test_fn_macro_custom_syntax

Eg 3 - Derive macro that adds a method to a struct #

We are going to come up w/ a made-up derive macro called Describe just for our pedagogical purposes.

1. This derive macro will add a method to an annotated struct, enum, or union called Describe which simply returns a String that contains the names of the fields in the struct.
2. We will then extend this derive macro to handle generics.

Test for expected output #

Here are some simple cases that we should be able to handle in our initial implementation.

use my_proc_macros_lib::Describe;

#[test]
fn test_proc_macro() {
  #[derive(Describe)]
  struct MyStruct {
    my_string: String,
    my_enum: MyEnum,
    my_number: i32,
  }

  #[derive(Describe)]
  enum MyEnum {
    MyVariant1,
  }

  let foo = MyStruct {
    my_string: "Hello".to_string(),
    my_enum: MyEnum::MyVariant1,
    my_number: 42,
  };
  let foo = foo.describe();
  assert_eq!(
    foo,
    "MyStruct is a struct with these named fields: my_string, my_enum, my_number"
  );
}s

⚡ To run this test from the repo, in watch mode you can execute the following script: ./cargo-watch-one-test.fish test_derive_macro_describe.

Watch macro expansion #

As we are developing this macro it is really useful not only to have the tests running (in watch mode) but also have the macro expansion running in watch mode.

⚡ To run the macro expansion related to this test from the repo, in watch mode you can execute the following script: ./cargo-watch-macro-expand-one-test.fish test_derive_macro_describe.

Naive implementation #

Let’s implement this derive macro in a naive way. We won’t handle generics, that will happen later.

We have to define a function in lib.rs which will use the function that we will write here.

extern crate proc_macro;
use proc_macro::TokenStream;

mod describe;

#[proc_macro_derive(Describe)]
pub fn derive_macro_describe(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
  describe::derive_proc_macro_impl(input)
}

Now to create the describe.rs file which will have the derive_proc_macro_impl function. This macro has to to be able to do the following things:

• For a struct or enum annotated with #[derive(Describe)] it will generate a method called describe which will return a String containing the names of the fields (named and unnamed) in the struct or enum.
• For a union annotated with #[derive(Describe)] it will generate a method called describe which will return a String containing the names of all the named fields in the union.

Here’s what we have so far.

pub fn derive_proc_macro_impl(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
  let DeriveInput {
    ident,
    data,
    ..
  } = parse_macro_input!(input as DeriveInput);

  let description_str = match data {
    Struct(my_struct) => gen_description_str_for_struct(my_struct),
    Enum(my_enum) => gen_description_str_for_enum(my_enum),
    Union(my_union) => gen_description_str_for_union(my_union),
  };

  quote! { /* todo */ }
}

Here’s what the implementation of the gen_description_str_for_struct function looks like.

fn gen_description_str_for_struct(my_struct: DataStruct) -> String {
  match my_struct.fields {
    Named(fields) => handle_named_fields(fields),
    Unnamed(fields) => handle_unnamed_fields(fields),
    Unit => handle_unit(),
  }
}

fn handle_named_fields(fields: FieldsNamed) -> String {
  let my_named_field_idents = fields.named.iter().map(|it| &it.ident);
  format!(
    "a struct with these named fields: {}",
    quote! {#(#my_named_field_idents), *}
  )
}

fn handle_unnamed_fields(fields: FieldsUnnamed) -> String {
  let my_unnamed_fields_count = fields.unnamed.iter().count();
  format!("a struct with {} unnamed fields", my_unnamed_fields_count)
}

fn handle_unit() -> String {
  format!("a unit struct")
}

And finally, here are the remainder of the functions.

fn gen_description_str_for_enum(my_enum: DataEnum) -> String {
  let my_variant_idents = my_enum.variants.iter().map(|it| &it.ident);
  format!(
    "an enum with these variants: {}",
    quote! {#(#my_variant_idents),*}
  )

fn gen_description_str_for_union(my_union: DataUnion) -> String {
  handle_named_fields(my_union.fields)
}

We actually haven’t generated a token stream yet. We will do that in the next step using quote! macro.

quote! {
  impl #generics #ident #generics #where_clause {
    fn describe(&self) -> String {
      let mut string = String::from(stringify!(#ident));
      string.push_str(" is ");
      string.push_str(#description_str);
      string
    }
  }
}
.into()

The quote! macro is incredibly powerful and it has a lot of smarts built into it which we will see when we implement generics support next.

Better implementation that handles generics #

Here’s an example of what a simple Generics object looks like when generated from struct Point<T> { ... }.

1. The Generics.params[0] is a TypeParam, which is our T.
2. It contains a an ident which is the T identifier in our struct Point<T> { ... }.

Generics {
    lt_token: Some(
        Lt,
    ),
    params: [
        Type(
            TypeParam {
                attrs: [],
                ident: Ident {
                    ident: "T",
                    span: #0 bytes(706..707),
                },
                colon_token: None,
                bounds: [],
                eq_token: None,
                default: None,
            },
        ),
    ],
    gt_token: Some(
        Gt,
    ),
    where_clause: None,
}

Here’s a function that we can use to parse this Generics object.

fn parse_generics(generics: &Generics) -> Option<Ident> {
  if let Some(generic_param) = generics.params.first() {
    // https://docs.rs/syn/latest/syn/enum.GenericParam.html
    match generic_param {
      syn::GenericParam::Type(ref param) => Some(param.ident.clone()),
      syn::GenericParam::Lifetime(_) => unimplemented!(),
      syn::GenericParam::Const(_) => unimplemented!(),
    }
  } else {
    None
  }
}

And then we could use this in our procedural macro, like so:

let parsed_generics = parse_generics(&generics);
match parsed_generics {
  Some(ref _generic_ident) => {
    quote! {
      impl <#parsed_generics> #ident <#parsed_generics> {
        fn describe(&self) -> String {
          let mut string = String::from(stringify!(#ident));
          string.push_str(" is ");
          string.push_str(#description);
          string
        }
      }
    }
    .into() // Convert from proc_macro2::TokenStream to TokenStream.
  }
  None => {
    quote! {
      impl #ident  {
        fn describe(&self) -> String {
          let mut string = String::from(stringify!(#ident));
          string.push_str(" is ");
          string.push_str(#description);
          string
        }
      }
    }
    .into() // Convert from proc_macro2::TokenStream to TokenStream.
  }
}

This might provide some insight into how the Generics object itself is structured, but there is no need to do any of this, since quote!() is awesome 🤯.

Using quote! #

Here’s a mental model for using quote!():

1. If you don’t include the “thing” that you want to see in generated code, then it will be left out.
2. Conversely, if you want to see it in the generated code, then include it explicitly!

So, to handle generics, where you can have multiple types and where clauses, here’s the simple code 🎉.

pub fn derive_proc_macro_impl(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
  let DeriveInput {
    ident,
    data,
    generics,
    ..
  } = parse_macro_input!(input as DeriveInput);

  let where_clause = &generics.where_clause;

  let description_str = match data {
    Struct(my_struct) => gen_description_str_for_struct(my_struct),
    Enum(my_enum) => gen_description_str_for_enum(my_enum),
    Union(my_union) => gen_description_str_for_union(my_union),
  };

  quote! {
    impl #generics #ident #generics #where_clause {
      fn describe(&self) -> String {
        let mut string = String::from(stringify!(#ident));
        string.push_str(" is ");
        string.push_str(#description_str);
        string
      }
    }
  }
  .into()
}

📜 Here’s the source code for describe.rs from its repo.

Here are some tips and tricks for using quote!():

1. Sometimes it is easier to start w/ a String or Vec<String> (which you can join() into a String), then parse that into a TokenStream using syn::parse_str(). Then pass that to quote!(). And example is if you wanted to add an arbitrary number of trait bounds to an existing where clause. It is just easier to manipulate the new trait bounds as a String, parse it into a TokenStream, and then use quote!() to add that to the existing where clause. Here’s an example from builder.rs.

   let traits: Vec<&str> = vec!["std::default::Default", "std::fmt::Debug"];
   syn::parse_str::<syn::Type>(&traits.join(" + ")).unwrap();
   

2. You can also use syn::parse_quote!() to get a TokenStream from a quote!() expression, if it is just easier to generate a quote!() expression instead of using String, etc.
3. Repeating patterns in quote!() can be tricky to reason about. The best way to get a feel for how it works is to try various things and as soon as you run into some road blocks, think about generating TokenStreams manually, and then passing them to quote!().

Eg 4 - Derive macro that generates a builder #

Now that we have seen a relatively simple derive procedural macro, let’s look at a more complex one that implements the builder pattern and supports generics. There are two things this macro has to do:

1. Generate the <Foo>Builder struct that simply copies all the fields of the annotated struct.
2. Generate the impl block for the <Foo>Builder struct. It needs the following:
   1. Setter methods for each named field of the <Foo> struct.
   2. A new() method that returns a <Foo>Builder struct.
   3. A build() method that returns a <Foo> struct.

📜 You can get the source code for this example from its repo here. And you can get the source for the test here.

Stub out the implementation #

We need to make an entry in lib.rs for it, like so:

#[proc_macro_derive(Builder)]
pub fn
derive_macro_builder(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
  builder::derive_proc_macro_impl(input)
}

Then we need to make a builder.rs file which contains the implementation of the derive macro.

pub fn derive_proc_macro_impl(input: proc_macro::TokenStream) -> proc_macro::TokenStream {
  let DeriveInput {
    ident: struct_name_ident,
    data,
    generics,
    ..
  }: DeriveInput = parse_macro_input!(input as DeriveInput);

  let required_trait_bounds: Vec<&str> = vec!["std::default::Default", "std::fmt::Debug"];

  // Only generate code for struct.
  if data.is_struct() {
    with_data_struct_make_ts(&data, &|data_struct| {
      let builder_name_ident = struct_name_ident.from_string("{}Builder");

      let gen_props_setter_fns_ts =
        transform_named_fields_into_setter_fns_ts(data_struct);

      let gen_props_ts = transform_named_fields_to_props_ts(data_struct);

      let doc_struct_str = format!(
        " Implements the [builder pattern] for [`{}`].\n [builder pattern]: {}",
        &struct_name_ident, BUILDER_DOC_URL
      );

      let gen_props_with_defaults_ts =
        transform_named_fields_to_props_with_defaults_ts(data_struct);

      let new_or_modified_where_clause_ts =
        if does_where_clause_exist(&generics.where_clause) {
          add_trait_bounds_to_existing_where_clause_ts(
            &generics.where_clause,
            &required_trait_bounds,
          )
        } else {
          make_new_where_clause_with_default_trait_bounds_for_named_fields(data_struct)
        };

      let build_set_named_fields_ts = build_fn_set_named_fields_ts(data_struct);

      quote! {
        #[doc = #doc_struct_str]
        impl #generics #builder_name_ident #generics #new_or_modified_where_clause_ts {
          pub fn new() -> Self {
            Self {
              #gen_props_with_defaults_ts
            }
          }

          pub fn build(mut self) -> #struct_name_ident #generics {
            #struct_name_ident {
              #build_set_named_fields_ts
            }
          }

          #gen_props_setter_fns_ts
        }

        struct #builder_name_ident #generics #new_or_modified_where_clause_ts {
          #gen_props_ts
        }
      }
    })
  } else {
    quote! {}
  }
  .into()
}

Testing the macro #

Here’s the test for the derive macro, test_derive_macro_builder.rs. They have to cover all the different kinds of structs that we might encounter, some that have generics, some that don’t.

#[test]
fn test_proc_macro_struct_and_enum() {
  #[derive(Builder)]
  struct MyStruct {
    my_string: String,
    my_enum: MyEnum,
    my_number: i32,
  }

  enum MyEnum {
    MyVariant1,
  }

  impl Default for MyEnum {
    fn default() -> Self { MyEnum::MyVariant1 }
  }
}

#[test]
fn test_proc_macro_no_where_clause() {
  #[derive(Builder)]
  struct Point<X, Y> {
    x: X,
    y: Y,
  }

  let my_pt: Point<i32, i32> = PointBuilder::new()
    .set_x(1 as i32)
    .set_y(2 as i32)
    .build();

  assert_eq!(my_pt.x, 1);
  assert_eq!(my_pt.y, 2);
}

#[test]
fn test_proc_macro_generics() {
  #[derive(Builder)]
  struct Point<X, Y>
  where
    X: std::fmt::Display + Clone,
    Y: std::fmt::Display + Clone,
  {
    x: X,
    y: Y,
  }

  let my_pt: Point<i32, i32> = PointBuilder::new()
    .set_x(1 as i32)
    .set_y(2 as i32)
    .build();

  assert_eq!(my_pt.x, 1);
  assert_eq!(my_pt.y, 2);
}

Implementation details #

Now that we have the skeleton of the entire thing, let’s look at some details of how this is implemented. It’s worth taking a closer look at the utils module, since these contain re-usable functions that are leveraged to construct the final macro.

One pattern used here is extending some syn and proc_macro2 types with a new method.

1. The syn::Data type is extended w/ a method is_struct that can be used to check whether it contains a struct or not.
2. proc_macro2::Ident type is extended w/ a method from_string that can be used to create a proc_macro2::Ident from a string.

And there are some nice functions in syn_parser_helpers.rs that make it easier for us to create lambdas that operate on named fields in the struct. We can use these to easily create a proc_macro2::TokenStream that will do various things like:

1. Create a props for the <Foo>Builder struct.
2. Generate setter functions for the impl block of the <Foo>Builder struct.
3. Generate where clauses that add trait bounds to the existing or new where clause.

Please review the sources in detail to get a better understanding of how this is implemented. One of the interesting things that this builder macro does is that it adds trait bounds to the existing where clause. This is done to make sure that the <Foo>Builder struct implements the Default trait for the Foo struct. It also adds a trait bound for Debug. Here’s a snippet of that.

🔮 There is no need to handle properties or fields that have Option type. Creating the requirement that the <Foo>Builder struct implements Default for the Foo struct ensures that if a field has an Option<T> type, then the default will be None. In other words, if you don’t specify a value for an Option<T> field type then the default will be None!.

let required_trait_bounds: Vec<&str> = vec!["std::default::Default", "std::fmt::Debug"];

fn add_trait_bounds_to_existing_where_clause_ts(
  where_clause: &Option<syn::WhereClause>,
  traits: &Vec<&str>,
) -> proc_macro2::TokenStream {
  // Must parse the `traits.join("+")` string into a [syn::Type].
  let joined_traits: syn::Type =
    syn::parse_str::<syn::Type>(&traits.join(" + ")).unwrap();

  let where_clause_ts = match where_clause {
    Some(where_clause) => {
      let where_predicate_punctuated_list = &where_clause.predicates;

      let modified_where_predicates_ts = where_predicate_punctuated_list
        .iter()
        .map(
          |where_predicate| match where_predicate {
            syn::WherePredicate::Type(_) => {
              quote! { #where_predicate + #joined_traits }
            }
            _ => quote! {},
          },
        )
        .collect::<Vec<_>>();

      quote! { where #(#modified_where_predicates_ts),* }
    }
    None => {
      quote! {}
    }
  };

  return where_clause_ts;
}

👀 Here are the scripts you can run to watch the macro expansion and test results as you make changes.

• We can watch this test run using this script: ./cargo-watch-one-test.fish test_derive_macro_builder
• We can watch the macros generated by this test expanded using this script: ./cargo-watch-macro-expand-one-test.fish test_derive_macro_builder

Eg 5 - Attribute macro that adds logging to a function #

Attribute procedural macros are very similar to derive procedural macros, with a few key differences.

1. Instead of just enum and struct an attribute procedural macro can be used to annotate any Item. For example, functions, traits, impl blocks, etc.
2. Unlike a derive macro, attribute macros will replace the entire item that is annotated. Derive macros can only add code below the annotated struct or enum.
3. There’s an extra input argument that attribute macros get passed which holds the arguments used to annotate the item. This is optional. These attributes can take 3 forms as defined in the syn::Meta enum, which can be matched as follows:
   1. Path(path) -> path: syn::Path is a meta path is like the test in #[test].
   2. List(meta_list) -> meta_list: syn::MetaList is a structured list within an attribute, like derive(Copy, Clone).
   3. NameValue(meta_name_value) -> meta_name_value: syn::MetaNameValue is name-value pair within an attribute, like feature = "nightly".

We aren’t sure yet what the attributes for this macro might look like. Here are two variants that we might try out. So let’s just make 2 macros.

1. Variant 1 - passing an argument that looks like a key value pair to the macro. This is the NameValue variant of the syn::Meta enum.

   #[attrib_macro_logger_1(key = "value")]
   pub fn some_annotated_function() {
       /* ... */
   }
   

2. Variant 2 - passing an argument that looks like a list of identifiers to the macro. This is not any of the variants of syn::Meta enum and is a something custom. However it is very similar to the List variant of syn::Meta enum.

   #[attrib_macro_logger_2(a, b, c)]
   pub fn some_annotated_function() {
       /* ... */
   }
   

Create entry in lib.rs #

Let’s start by creating an entry in lib.rs for these attribute macros.

#[proc_macro_attribute]
pub fn attrib_macro_logger_1(
  args: TokenStream,
  item: TokenStream,
) -> TokenStream {
  logger::attrib_proc_macro_impl(args, item)
}

#[proc_macro_attribute]
pub fn attrib_macro_logger_2(
  args: TokenStream,
  item: TokenStream,
) -> TokenStream {
  logger::attrib_proc_macro_impl(args, item)
}

Now let’s write the implementations of the attribute macros, named logger.rs. As you can see in addition to the item parameter, we have an extra parameter args that holds the arguments that were passed into this attribute macro.

use quote::quote;

/// The args take a key value pair like `#[attrib_macro_logger(key = "value")]`.
pub fn attrib_proc_macro_impl_1(
  args: proc_macro::TokenStream,
  item: proc_macro::TokenStream,
) -> proc_macro::TokenStream {
  quote! {}.into()
}

/// The args take a set of identifiers like `#[attrib_macro_logger(a, b, c)]`.
pub fn attrib_proc_macro_impl_2(
  args: proc_macro::TokenStream,
  item: proc_macro::TokenStream,
) -> proc_macro::TokenStream {
  quote! {}.into()
}

📜 You can get the source code for this example in its repo here.

👀 Watch macro expansion

To watch for changes run this script: ./cargo-watch-macro-expand-one-test.fish test_attribute_macro_logger

👀 Watch test output

To watch for test output run this script: ./cargo-watch-one-test.fish test_attribute_macro_logger

How to parse item? #

How do we parse the item parameter? We can use syn::ItemFn and parse_macro_input!() to parse it into something usable. Here’s an example.

#[proc_macro_attribute]
pub fn attrib_proc_macro_impl_1(args: TokenStream, item: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
    let item = parse_macro_input!(item as ItemFn);
    quote! {}.into()
}

#[proc_macro_attribute]
pub fn attrib_proc_macro_impl_2(args: TokenStream, item: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
    let item = parse_macro_input!(item as ItemFn);
    quote! {}.into()
}

How to parse args containing attributes for variant 1? #

How do we parse args parameter into something we can use? We can use syn::AttributeArgs along w/ parse_macro_input!() to parse it into something usable.

#[proc_macro_attribute]
pub fn attrib_proc_macro_impl_1(args: TokenStream, item: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
  let args = parse_macro_input!(args as AttributeArgs);
  let item = parse_macro_input!(item as ItemFn);
  quote! {}.into()
}

Here’s a snippet of how we might use this attribute macro.

#[attrib_macro_logger_1(key = "value")]
pub fn some_annotated_function() {
  /* ... */
}

What we really want out of the AttributeArgs is the key and value pair. We will write an extension trait to parse the key and value pair. And this is how we can use it.

pub fn attrib_proc_macro_impl_1(args: TokenStream, item: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
  let args = parse_macro_input!(args as AttributeArgs);
  // Parse args (which contain key & value).
  let (key, value) = args.get_key_value_pair();
  println!(
    "key: {}, value: {}",
    style_prompt(&key),
    style_prompt(&value),
  );
  ...
}

You can get the implementation of the extension traits in the links below.

1. AttributeArgsExt
2. MetaExt
3. NestedMetaExt

These traits are implemented on the types that are provided by syn and all work in a similar fashion. They all look for specific patterns and panic if they’re not found. This is the desired behavior because we want the compiler to give error messages when the it can’t generate code for the macro.

And finally we have the complete macro.

pub fn attrib_proc_macro_impl_1(
  args: proc_macro::TokenStream,
  item: proc_macro::TokenStream,
) -> proc_macro::TokenStream {
  let args = parse_macro_input!(args as AttributeArgs);
  let item = parse_macro_input!(item as ItemFn);

  // Parse args (which contain key & value).
  let (key, value) = args.get_key_value_pair();
  println!(
    "key: {}, value: {}",
    style_prompt(&key),
    style_prompt(&value),
  );

  let fn_ident = item.sig.ident.from_string(&key);

  quote! {
    fn #fn_ident() -> &'static str {
      #value
    }
  }
  .into()
}

When we use the macro like so:

#[attrib_macro_logger_1(key = "value")]
fn this_fn_will_be_consumed_and_replaced() -> i32 { 42 }

Here’s the code that is generated:

fn key() -> &'static str {
  "value"
}

How to parse args containing set of identifiers for variant 2? #

We can also provide our own custom implementation of the Parse trait if we want to. Here’s an example of this based on syn’s trace-var example.

use std::collections::HashSet as Set;
use syn::{parse_macro_input, Token, Ident};
use syn::parse::{Parse, ParseStream, Result};

/// Parses a list of variable names separated by `+`.
///
///     a + b + c
///
/// This is how the compiler passes in arguments to our attribute -- it is
/// everything inside the delimiters after the attribute name.
///
///     #[attrib_macro_logger(a+ b+ c)]
///                           ^^^^^^^
struct ArgsHoldingIdents {
  idents: Set<Ident>,
}

impl Parse for ArgsHoldingIdents {
  fn parse(args: ParseStream) -> Result<Self> {
    let vars = Punctuated::<Ident, Token![+]>::parse_terminated(args)?;
    Ok(ArgsHoldingIdents {
      idents: vars.into_iter().collect(),
    })
  }
}

1. The parse() function receives a ParseStream and returns a Result. In this case:
   1. args::ParseStream is the TokenStream of the optional arguments that are passed into the attribute macro. In other words (a+ b+ c).
   2. Result holds the struct ArgsHoldingIdents. In other words a Set of Ident containing a, b, c.
2. The actual work is done by Punctuated::parse_terminated() function. There are a few of these helper functions provided by syn.
3. parse_terminated() parses a bunch of T separated by P and it has to be told two things:
   1. What type T it is parsing? In this case, Ident.
   2. What the separator P? In this case, Token![+] which is the Rust representation of the + token (provided by the Token! macro).
   3. We provide it w/ this information using the turbofish syntax: ::<Ident, Token![+]>::.
4. Finally after the ParseStream is parsed, it returns an iterator, which must be used to generate the result. We simply iterate over the iterator and collect the Idents and move them into an instance of a new struct ArgsHoldingIdents and return that wrapped in a Result::Ok.

And we might implement the macro like this:

/// The args take a set of identifiers like `#[attrib_macro_logger(a, b, c)]`.
pub fn attrib_proc_macro_impl_2(
  args: proc_macro::TokenStream,
  item: proc_macro::TokenStream,
) -> proc_macro::TokenStream {
  let args = parse_macro_input!(args as ArgsHoldingIdents);
  let item = parse_macro_input!(item as ItemFn);

  let fn_name_ident = item.sig.ident;

  let args_to_string = args
    .idents
    .iter()
    .map(|ident| ident.to_string())
    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
    .join(", ");

  quote! {
    pub fn #fn_name_ident() -> &'static str { #args_to_string }
  }
  .into()
}

And use it like so:

#[attrib_macro_logger_2(a + b + c)]
fn foo() -> i32 { 42 }

This generates the following code (very minor note - the ordering of the output is actually not stable):

pub fn foo() -> &'static str {
  "c, a, b"
}

📜 You can find another example of a attribute procedural macro from the syn docs called trace-var.

Learning resources #

• Overview
  • Excellent overview video
• Books / articles
  • Macro how to
  • Macro how to
• Workshop
  • Proc macro workshop
  • Proc macro workshop solutions
• Technical guides to getting things working
  • Tutorial - Add lib crate for macros
  • lib.rs restriction
  • Quote
  • Syn
• Procedural macros workshop
  • Workshop derive builder problem
  • Solution hints for builder problem
• Source code examples
  1. You can find “real world” examples of both declarative and procedural macros in the r3bl-open-core repo.
     • proc macros
     • decl macros
  2. You can find all the pedagogical examples of macros shown in this article in this repo.

🌟 Please star the r3bl-open-core repo. You can get lots of useful Rust command line apps from the r3bl-cmdr crate in this repo:

• 🐱giti: run interactive git commands with confidence in your terminal
• 🦜edi: edit Markdown with style in your terminal

📦 You can install them using cargo install r3bl-cmdr

giti in action edi in action

If you would like to get involved in an open source project and like Rust crates, we welcome your contributions to the r3bl-open-core repo.

#mp #rust

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